Prediction and treatment of immunotherapeutic toxicity

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure is directed to methods and compositions for the prediction and treatment of immunotherapy-induced toxicities, as well as improved methods for the treatment of cancer with immunotherapies.

PRIORITY CLAIM

This application is a national phase application under 35 U.S.C. § 371of International Application No. PCT/US 2018/018594, filed Feb. 19,2018, which claims benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional ApplicationSer. No. 62/461,455, filed Feb. 21, 2017, the entire contents of each ofwhich are hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Disclosure

The present disclosure relates generally to the fields of medicine,oncology, and immunology. More particular, the disclosure relates toidentification of markers for immunotherapy-related toxicity in thecontext of cancer treatments.

2. Background

Medical providers may soon be facing the possibility of curing patientsof cancer at the expense of short-term or life-long autoimmune toxicitysuch as Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, or lupus as a result oftheir cancer therapy. Decades of oncology research have focused onutilizing the immune system to attack tumor cells. In the last severalyears, there have been remarkable advancements: drugs known asimmunotoxins, chimeric antigen receptors and immune checkpointinhibitors have proven effective for treating some cancers includingmelanoma and lung cancers Immune checkpoint inhibitors work bypreventing cancer cells from turning T-cells (white blood cells thatdetect infections and abnormalities) off. This allows the T-cells toattack a tumor and stop it from growing. Based on promising results fromrecent clinical trials, immune checkpoint inhibitors will likely becomeavailable for many other cancers, including gynecologic malignancies,lymphomas, head-and-neck cancer, gastrointestinal tumors, and kidneycancer (Hamanishi et al., 2015; Ansell et al., 2015; McDermott et al.,2015; Early Breast Cancer Trials, 1998; Le et al., 2015) Immunotherapyis so effective that it could benefit millions of cancer patientsworldwide every year.

However, a key element of this form of treatment remains poorlyunderstood: toxicity (side effects). Oncologists understand and cananticipate the toxicity from traditional chemotherapy: hair loss aftertwo treatment cycles, nausea/vomiting five-to-seven days afterchemotherapy, low blood counts 10-14 days after chemotherapy. Physiciansalso know who is most likely to experience these complications, such aselderly patients and individuals with decreased liver or kidneyfunction. However, the promising field of immunotherapy represents acompletely new set of challenges. Because immune checkpoint inhibitorsprevent T-cells from being turned off, these drugs could cause theimmune system to attack healthy cells in addition to cancer cells andleave patients with an autoimmune reaction. Almost every organ can beinvolved including the brain (encephalitis), thyroid (hyper- orhypothyroidism), liver (hepatitis), and skin (dermatitis) (Howell etal., 2015). Prediction, detection and treatment of these toxicities is anew endeavor for oncologists. At present, physicians currently have notools to predict who will experience these reactions, when they willoccur, or how long they will last. Oncologists are seeing higher ratesof autoimmune side effects than ever before, with up to 40 percent ofpatients experiencing clinically-serious events (Postow et al., 2015;Khan et al., 2016).

SUMMARY

Thus, in accordance with the present disclosure, there is provided amethod of predicting/diagnosing immunotherapeutic toxicity in a humansubject comprising (a) providing an antibody-containing sample from saidsubject; (b) assessing autoantibody level in said sample; and (c)predicting/diagnosing immunotherapy toxicity in said subject when thelevel of autoantibody is greater than populational average, andpredicting lack of immunotherapy toxicity in said subject when the levelof autoantibody is below a populational average. The sample may be awhole blood, serum, plasma, or other body fluid. The immunotherapytoxicity may be cancer immunotherapy toxicity. The autoantibody levelmay be assessed using a plurality of antigen in Table 1, or all antigensin Table 1. The autoantibody level may be assessed using a plurality ofantigens in Table 2, or all antigens in Table 2. The autoantibody levelmay be assessed using a plurality of antigens in Table 1 and Table 2, orall antigens in Table 1 and Table 2.

Assessing may comprise ELISA, RIA, Western blot, microarray, such asfluorescence-based antibody screening protein microarray, bead array,cartridges, lateral flow, or line-probe assays. The method may furthercomprise repeating steps (a)-(c) at a second time point, therebypermitting assessment of a change in immunotherapeutic toxicity risk.The method may further comprise performing a control reaction with knownautoantibody standards. The method may further comprise treating saidsubject with a cancer immunotherapy when said autoantibody level isbelow a populational average. The immunotherapy may compriseadministration of an immune checkpoint inhibitor, an anti-CTLA4antibody, an anti-PD1 antibody, an anti-PD1 ligand, a chimeric antigenreceptor, or an immunotoxin. The method may further comprise treatingsaid subject with a non-immunotherapy cancer treatment when saidautoantibody level is above a populational average. The method mayfurther comprising treating said subject with a cancer immunotherapy anda toxicity mitigating therapy, such as corticosteroids (e.g.,prednisone, methylprednisolone, dexamethasone, budesonide), TNFinhibitors (e.g., infliximab), or hormone replacement (e.g.,hydrocortisone, levothyroxine) when said autoantibody level is above apopulational average. The immunotherapy may comprise administration ofan immune checkpoint inhibitor, an anti-CTLA4 antibody, an anti-PD1antibody, an anti-PD1 ligand, a chimeric antigen receptor, or animmunotoxin.

The method subject may have previously been diagnosed with an autoimmunedisease. The subject may not have previously been diagnosed with anautoimmune disease. The subject may have lung cancer, melanoma, head &neck cancer, kidney cancer, or lymphoma, or bladder cancer. The methodmay further comprise assessing a rate of increase or decrease inautoantibody level. The method may further comprise stratifying saidsubject as having a relatively greater or lesser immunotherapy toxicitybased on the number of different autoantibody specificities, with agreat number of specificities correlating based on assessing a rate ofincrease or decrease in autoantibody level, and the method may furthercomprise selecting a mitigating/adjunct therapy based on the greater orlesser immunotherapy toxicity, such as where the adjunct therapy is acorticosteroid (e.g., prednisone, methylprednisolone, dexamethasone,budesonide), TNF inhibitor (e.g., infliximab), or hormone replacementtherapy (e.g., hydrocortisone, levothyroxine). The method may alsofurther comprise classifying immunotherapy toxicity based on organ ororgan system in said subject, such as where the organ or organ system isskin (e.g., dermatitis), gastrointestinal tract (e.g., colitis), lung(e.g., pneumonitis), central/peripheral nervous system (e.g.,encephalitis, myasthenia gravis), pituitary gland (e.g., hypophysitis),eye (endophthalmitis), heart (carditis), thyroid(thyroiditis/hyperthyroidism/hypothyroidism), adrenal gland(adrenalitis/adrenal insufficiency), liver (hepatitis), pancreas(pancreatitis, autoimmune type 1 diabetes), or kidney (nephritis). Thesubject may be further characterized as receiving a molecular targetedtherapy, a chemotherapy, a chemoembolization, a radiotherapy, aradiofrequency ablation, a hormone therapy, a bland embolization, asurgery, or a second distinct immunotherapy.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of treating a humansubject with cancer comprising (a) providing an antibody-containingsample from said subject; (b) assessing autoantibody level in saidsample; and (c) treating said subject with (i) a cancer immunotherapywhen said autoantibody level is below populational average; (ii) anon-immunotherapy cancer treatment when said autoantibody level is abovepopulational average; or (iii) a cancer immunotherapy and a toxicitymitigating therapy when said autoantibody level is above populationalaverage. The sample may be a whole blood, serum, plasma, or other bodyfluid. The immunotherapy toxicity may be cancer immunotherapy toxicity.The autoantibody level may be assessed using a plurality of antigen inTable 1, or all antigens in Table 1. The autoantibody level may beassessed using a plurality of antigens in Table 2, or all antigens inTable 2. The autoantibody level may be assessed using a plurality ofantigens in Table 1 and Table 2, or all antigens in Table 1 and Table 2.

Assessing may comprise ELISA, RIA, Western blot, microarray, such asfluorescence-based antibody screening protein microarray, bead array,cartridges, lateral flow, or line-probe assays. The method may furthercomprise repeating steps (a)-(c) at a second time point, therebypermitting assessment of therapeutic toxicity. The method may furthercomprise performing a control reaction with known autoantibodystandards. The immunotherapy may comprise administration of an immunecheckpoint inhibitor, an anti-CTLA4 antibody, an anti-PD1 antibody, ananti-PD1 ligand, a chimeric antigen receptor, or an immunotoxin. Theimmunotherapy may comprise a combination of multiple immunotherapeuticagents, or a combination of an immunotherapeutic agent and anon-immunotherapeutic agent.

The method subject may have previously been diagnosed with an autoimmunedisease. The subject may not have previously been diagnosed with anautoimmune disease. The subject may have lung cancer, melanoma, head &neck cancer, kidney cancer, or lymphoma, or bladder cancer. The methodmay further comprise assessing a rate of increase or decrease inautoantibody level. The method may further comprise stratifying saidsubject as having a relatively greater or lesser immunotherapy toxicitybased on the number of different autoantibody specificities, with agreat number of specificities correlating based on assessing a rate ofincrease or decrease in autoantibody level, and the method may furthercomprise selecting a mitigating/adjunct therapy based on the greater orlesser immunotherapy toxicity, such as where the adjunct therapy is acorticosteroid (e.g., prednisone, methylprednisolone, dexamethasone,budesonide), TNF inhibitor (e.g., infliximab), or hormone replacementtherapy (e.g., hydrocortisone, levothyroxine). The method may alsofurther comprise classifying immunotherapy toxicity based on organ ororgan system in said subject, such as where the organ or organ system isskin (e.g., dermatitis), lung (e.g., pneumonitis), central/peripheralnervous system (e.g., encephalitis, myasthenia gravis), pituitary gland(e.g., hypophysitis), eye (endophthalmitis), heart (carditis),gastrointestinal tract (colitis), thyroid(thyroiditis/hyperthyroidism/hypothyroidism), adrenal gland(adrenalitis/adrenal insufficiency), liver (hepatitis), pancreas(pancreatitis, autoimmune type 1 diabetes), or kidney (nephritis). Thesubject may be further characterized as receiving a molecular targetedtherapy, a chemotherapy, a chemoembolization, a radiotherapy, aradiofrequency ablation, a hormone therapy, a bland embolization, asurgery, or a second distinct immunotherapy.

In yet a further embodiment, there is provided a method of determiningwhether a subject has recovered from immunotherapy toxicity comprising(a) providing a first antibody-containing sample from said subjectfollowing immunotherapy and the development of immunotherapy toxicity;(b) assessing autoantibody level in said first antibody-containingsample; (c) providing a second antibody-containing sample from saidsubject after immunotherapy toxicity has subsided; (d) assessingautoantibody level in said second antibody-containing sample; and (e)classifying said subject as suitable for further immunotherapy whenautoantibody levels have dropped by at least 50% in said secondantibody-containing sample as compared to said first antibody-containingsample. The method may further comprising treating said subject with animmunotherapy following step (e) when autoantibody levels have droppedby at least 50% in said second antibody-containing sample as compared tosaid first antibody-containing sample:

The sample may be a whole blood, serum, plasma, or other body fluid. Theimmunotherapy toxicity may be cancer immunotherapy toxicity. Theautoantibody level may be assessed using a plurality of antigen in Table1, using all antigens in Table 1, using a plurality of antigens in Table2, using all antigens in Table 2, using a plurality of antigens in Table1 and Table 2, or using all of antigens in Table 1 and Table 2.Assessing may comprise ELISA, RIA, Western blot, microarray, such asfluorescence-based antibody screening protein microarray, bead array,cartridges, lateral flow, or line-probe assays. The method may furthercomprise performing a control reaction with known autoantibodystandards.

The immunotherapy may comprise administration of an immune checkpointinhibitor, a chimeric antigen receptor, or an immunotoxin, may compriseadministration of an anti-CTLA4 antibody, an anti-PD1 antibody, or ananti-PD1 ligand, may comprise a combination of multipleimmunotherapeutic agents, or may comprise a combination of animmunotherapeutic agent and a non-immunotherapeutic agent. The subjectmay have previously been diagnosed with an autoimmune disease, or maynot previously have been diagnosed with an autoimmune disease. Thesubject may have lung cancer, melanoma, head & neck cancer, kidneycancer, or lymphoma, or bladder cancer.

The method may further comprise assessing a rate of decrease inautoantibody level. The method may further comprise stratifying saidsubject as having a relatively greater or lesser risk of recurrentimmunotherapy toxicity based on the number of different autoantibodyspecificities, with a great number of specificities correlating based onassessing a rate of increase or decrease in autoantibody level, andoptionally further comprise selecting a mitigating/adjunct therapy basedon the greater or lesser immunotherapy toxicity, such as acorticosteroid (e.g., prednisone, methylprednisolone, dexamethasone,budesonide), TNF inhibitor (e.g., infliximab), or hormone replacementtherapy (e.g., hydrocortisone, levothyroxine). The subject may befurther characterized as receiving a molecular targeted therapy, achemotherapy, a chemoembolization, a radiotherapy, a radiofrequencyablation, a hormone therapy, a bland embolization, a surgery, or asecond distinct immunotherapy.

In still yet another embodiment, there is provided a method comprising(a) providing an antibody-containing sample from said subject havingcancer and being treated with a cancer immunotherapy; (b) assessingautoantibody level in said sample; and (c) comparing the level ofautoantibody to an age-, sex- and/or race-based populational average.

The sample may be whole blood, serum, plasma, or other body fluid. Themethod may assess autoantibody level using a plurality of antigen inTable 1, using all antigens in Table 1, using a plurality of antigens inTable 2, using all antigens in Table 2, using a plurality of antigens inTable 1 and Table 2, or all of antigens in Table 1 and Table 2.Assessing may comprise ELISA, RIA, Western blot, microarray, such asfluorescence-based antibody screening protein microarray, bead array,cartridges, lateral flow, or line-probe assays.

The method may further comprising repeating steps (a)-(c) at a secondtime point, thereby permitting assessment of a change in autoantibodylevels over time. The method may further comprise performing a controlreaction with known autoantibody standards.

The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term“comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” butit is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,”and “one or more than one.” The word “about” means plus or minus 5% ofthe stated number.

It is contemplated that any method or composition described herein canbe implemented with respect to any other method or composition describedherein. Other objects, features and advantages of the present disclosurewill become apparent from the following detailed description. It shouldbe understood, however, that the detailed description and the specificexamples, while indicating specific embodiments of the invention, aregiven by way of illustration only, since various changes andmodifications within the spirit and scope of the disclosure will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following drawings form part of the present specification and areincluded to further demonstrate certain aspects of the presentdisclosure. The disclosure may be better understood by reference to oneor more of these drawings in combination with the detailed descriptionof specific embodiments presented herein.

FIG. 1 . (Top) Frequency distribution of ANA titers among 2,223 healthydonors. Three sub-distributions are present: ANA negative (74%), ANAmoderate (18%), and ANA high (9%). (Bottom) Heat map illustrating thediverse array of autoantigens recognized by IgG antibodies from the seraof health individuals with benign autoimmunity. Antibody reactivity of88 ANA negative (ELISA<20) (left) and 88 ANA positive (ELISA≥20) (right)for 34 auto-antigens. Strong reactivity is increasing red, while weakeris increasing green, relative to mean value (black) for all samples inthe analysis. Scale is on the right.

FIG. 2 . Paired IgG autoantibody profiles from patients before and afterimmune checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Scale: low, blue; moderate, black;high, yellow. Note that patients with highest baseline autoimmunity(patients 1, 4, 6) also appear to have the greatest proportionalincrease in autoantibodies after treatment exposure. The list ofantigens on the right side from top to bottom of the panel is asfollows:

-   -   Cardolipin    -   Histone H1    -   Collagen III    -   FactorD    -   Collagen VI    -   Collagen II    -   Decorin-bovine    -   Genomic DNA    -   ssRNA    -   Histone H4    -   alpha-actinin    -   Collagen I    -   complement C3a    -   Cytochrome C    -   Histone-total    -   Chondroitin Sulfate    -   Chromatin    -   Collagen V    -   gP210    -   AGTR1    -   Heparan HSPG    -   Proteoglycan    -   dsDNA    -   ssDNA    -   Laminin    -   Collagen IV    -   Hemocyanin    -   CENP-B    -   A100    -   Alpha Fodrin (SPTAN1)    -   Prothrombin protein    -   PL-7    -   Scl-70    -   Thyroglobulin    -   b2-glycoprotein I    -   La/SSB    -   BPI    -   Jo-1    -   Elastin    -   Histone H2B    -   Topoisomerase I    -   Aggrecan    -   AQP4    -   Glycated Albumin    -   Sm/RNP    -   GP2    -   EBNA1    -   complement C7    -   complement C8    -   KU (P70/P80)    -   M2    -   complement Clq    -   Ro-52/SSA    -   complement C3    -   complement C5    -   complement C9    -   TTG    -   Mitochondrial antige    -   LC1    -   Fibrinogen IV    -   Ribo phasphoprotein P0    -   Fibrinogen S    -   TNFa    -   Peroxiredoxin 1    -   PM/Scl-75    -   Matrigel    -   Myelin-associated    -   glycoprotein    -   Myosin    -   PCNA    -   Muscarinic receptor    -   Vitronectin    -   Factor I    -   complement C3b    -   complement C4    -   complement C6    -   T1F1 GAMMA    -   FactorH    -   Ribo phasphoprotein P1    -   Intrinsic Factor    -   MDA5    -   MPO    -   SmD1    -   CRP antigen    -   FactorB    -   TPO    -   SP100    -   Vimentin    -   PL-12    -   Mi-2    -   Gliadin (IgG)    -   b2-microglobulin    -   PM/Scl-100    -   U1-snRNP-A    -   Nucleosome antigen    -   U1-snRNP-C    -   Nup62    -   GBM (disso)    -   Ribo phasphoprotein P2    -   Sm    -   U1-snRNP-68    -   Histone H2A    -   Heperan Sulfate    -   POLB    -   PR3    -   Factor P    -   Ro-60/SSA    -   Amyloid    -   SRP54    -   Phophatidylinositol    -   LKM1    -   SmD    -   SmD3    -   CENP-A    -   Entaktin EDTA    -   DGPS    -   Fibronectin    -   SmD2    -   U1-snRNP-BB′    -   Histone H3    -   Myelin basic protein    -   Sphingomyelin

FIG. 3 . Analysis of autoantigen reactivity in more than 600 sera withan array of more than 100 autoantigens. The list of antigens on theright side from top to bottom of the panel is as follows:

-   -   Histone H1    -   Amyloid    -   alpha-actinin    -   Chondroitin Sulfate    -   C    -   Aggrecan    -   Collagen VI    -   Cytochrome C    -   CENP-A    -   CENP-B    -   Decorin-bovine    -   Nucleolin    -   Collagen IV    -   Beta 2-glycoprotein    -   I    -   DGPS    -   GBM-dissociated    -   Collagen I    -   Collagen II    -   Collagen V    -   Elastin    -   Heperan Sulfate    -   Cardolipin    -   Proteoglycan    -   LKM1    -   Collagen III    -   Glycated Albumin    -   PR3    -   MBP    -   Phophatidylinositol    -   Sphingomyelin    -   Jo-1    -   Fibrinogen IV    -   Fibrinogen S    -   Heparin    -   Heparan HSPG    -   Matrigel    -   Laminin    -   Mitochondrial    -   antigen    -   BPI    -   GP2    -   Intrinsic Factor    -   Gliadin-IgG    -   Sm/RNP    -   Vitronectin    -   Entaktin EDTA    -   Histone-total    -   Hinstone H4    -   Hinstone H3    -   PL-12    -   PL-7    -   Beta 2-microglobulin    -   Hemocyanin    -   Peroxiredoxin 1    -   Prothrombin protein    -   SRP54    -   Myosin    -   PCNA    -   KU-P70/P80    -   M2 Antigen    -   Mi-2    -   Clq    -   Histone H2B    -   Chromatin    -   ds RNA    -   dsDNA    -   Nucleosome    -   ssDNA    -   Histone H2A    -   MPO    -   Sm    -   SmD    -   Ribo phaspho    -   protein P1    -   U1-snRNP-BB′    -   U1-snRNP-C    -   U1-snRNP-68    -   U1-snRNP-A    -   Ribo phaspho    -   protein P2    -   Ribo phasphoprotein    -   P0    -   La/SSB    -   LC1    -   Ro/SSA-52 KDa    -   Ro/SSA-60 KDa    -   SP100    -   PM/Scl-100    -   Scl-70    -   Topoisomerase I    -   Thyroglobulin    -   TPO    -   TTG    -   Fibronectin    -   Nup62    -   gP210    -   Vimentin    -   PM/Scl-75    -   MAG

FIG. 4 . Fifty auto-antibodies across healthy controls, patients withoutAE and patients with AE at baseline level.

FIG. 5 . Patients with AE have shown significantly elevated levels ofauto-antibodies at baseline level as compared with patients without AEor healthy controls.

FIG. 6 . Two out of 50 IgG are altered significantly two weekspost-treatment in the toxicity group versus the non-toxicity group.Graphs show log transformed-fold change in each group of patients twoweeks versus baseline.

FIG. 7 . Three out of 50 IgG are altered significantly six weekspost-treatment in the toxicity group versus non-toxicity group. Graphsshow log transformed-fold change in each group of patients six weeksversus baseline.

FIGS. 8-9 . Random Forest Model in Caret Package to Select Important IgGThat Could Predict Toxicity at Baseline Level. Based on a set of 32patients without toxicity and 19 patients who developed toxicity.

DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

The currently used biomarkers for immunotherapy, which include PD-L1expression, mutational burden and CD8 T-cell repertoire, are focusedentirely on prediction of efficacy. There are no validated biomarkersthat exist to predict toxicity, nor are there biomarkers to monitor theseverity, chronology and response to anti-toxicity therapy in theimmunotherapy setting.

Here, the inventors describe a blood test that examines antibodies toknown autoantigens that is able to not only predict toxicity, but tomonitor toxicity and guide immunotherapeutic selections. Furthermore,the same test can be used to monitor and guide treatment ofimmunotherapy toxicity.

These and other aspects of the disclosure are described in detail below.

I. IMMUNOTHERAPY AND RELATED TOXICITY

The emergence of cancer immunotherapy has introduced an entirely new setof unpredictable, potentially severe, and possibly permanent toxicitiesImmune checkpoint inhibitors targeting the cytotoxic T lymphocyteantigen 4 (CTLA4) and programmed death 1 (PD1) axes are transformingcancer treatment, with impressive clinical activity already leading toFDA approvals for melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, renal cellcarcinoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and bladder cancer. However, cancerimmunotherapies also pose a risk for immune-related adverse events(irAEs). These diverse toxicities are problematic because they areentirely distinct from the toxicities oncologists have come to expectwith conventional chemotherapy and molecularly targeted therapies.

Immune-mediated toxicities may impact almost every organ system,including brain, pituitary, thyroid, ocular, pulmonary, hepatic,intestinal, dermatologic, and adrenal (Topalian et al., 2012). Incontrast to the well-characterized temporal patterns of classicchemotherapy toxicities such as alopecia, nausea/vomiting, andmyelosuppression, the onset and duration of irAEs remains unpredictable.Recent studies indicate that up to 80% of individuals receivingcheckpoint therapies experience some form of irAE, with about 35% of allpatients requiring systemic corticosteroid treatments to mitigate theseevents, and up to 20% terminating their therapy due to irAEs (Horvat etal., 2015). These adverse responses convey substantial morbidity, incurconsiderable costs, and in some cases may preclude further use of thesedrugs. As immunotherapy use expands from major centers where pivotaltrials have been conducted to smaller, isolated, and less experiencedcommunity sites, the ability to recognize and treat irAEs promptly maybe challenged. With the FDA approval of combination PD1 and CLTA4inhibition for melanoma in October 2015, and similar combinationscurrently under study in other diseases, rates and severity of irAEs maybe even greater in the future. To date, no clinical, laboratory, orradiographic biomarkers can predict these toxicities.

The CTLA4 and PD1-PDL1 axes normally function to activate regulatorypathways that maintain peripheral tolerance to self-antigens (Allison etal., 1998a). The therapeutic benefit of inhibiting these regulatorysystems is thought to result from the amplification of suppressedanti-tumor immune responses that are blocked by tumor-specificmanipulations of the immune system (Gubin et al., 2014). However, theseregulatory pathways are also intimately involved in the regulation ofautoimmune and auto-aggressive immune responses (Allison et al., 1998b).As a result, it is quite likely that any extant autoimmune responsesthat are being regulated by these peripheral pathways might also becomeactivated during checkpoint blockade therapy.

Autoimmune disease, in which the recognition of self-antigens by theimmune system leads to severe damage to specific self-tissues, isestimated to affect almost 10% of the U.S. population (Cooper et al.,2009). A recent SEER-Medicare analysis suggests that the prevalence ofthese conditions may be even higher among individuals with cancer (Khanet al., 2016). Moreover, recent studies by the inventors and others havefound that more than 26% of healthy individuals have strong IgG humoralimmune responses to a variety of self-antigens, indicating that “benign”autoimmunity is much more common than autoimmune disease (FIG. 1 )(Wandstradt et al., 2006; Li et al., 2011; Li and Wakeland, 2015; Tan etal., 1997). These findings indicate that many healthy individualsexhibit significant autoimmunity that is regulated in the peripheralimmune system by pathways such as those triggered by CTLA-4 and PD1.Consistent with this observation, CTLA-4 and PD1 are both known topotentiate autoimmune disease, suggesting that the inhibition of theseregulatory pathways aggravates pre-existing autoimmunity (Kristiansen etal., 2000; Romo-Tena et al., 2013; Gianchecchi et al., 2013). Based onthis observation, the inventors hypothesize that checkpoint therapyirAEs often result from the activation of pre-existing autoimmunity.

II. AUTOIMMUNITY AND AUTOANTIGENS

A. Autoimmunity

Autoimmunity is defined as the system of immune responses of an organismagainst its own healthy cells and tissues. Any disease that results fromsuch an aberrant immune response is termed an autoimmune disease.Prominent examples include celiac disease, diabetes mellitus type 1,sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjögren's syndrome,eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis,Graves' disease, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, Addison's disease,rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis,polymyositis (PM), and dermatomyositis (DM). Autoimmune diseases arevery often treated with steroids.

The misconception that an individual's immune system is totallyincapable of recognizing self-antigens is not new. Paul Ehrlich, at thebeginning of the twentieth century, proposed the concept of horrorautotoxicus, wherein a “normal” body does not mount an immune responseagainst its own tissues. Thus, any autoimmune response was perceived tobe abnormal and postulated to be connected with human disease. Now, itis accepted that autoimmune responses are an integral part of vertebrateimmune systems (sometimes termed “natural autoimmunity”), normallyprevented from causing disease by the phenomenon of immunologicaltolerance to self-antigens.

While a high level of autoimmunity is unhealthy, a low level ofautoimmunity may actually be beneficial. Taking the experience of abeneficial factor in autoimmunity further, one might hypothesize withintent to prove that autoimmunity is always a self-defense mechanism ofthe mammalian system to survive. The system does not randomly lose theability to distinguish between self and non-self; the attack on cellsmay be the consequence of cycling metabolic processes necessary to keepthe blood chemistry in homeostasis. Autoimmunity may have a role inallowing a rapid immune response in the early stages of an infectionwhen the availability of foreign antigens limits the response (i.e.,when there are few pathogens present).

Certain individuals are genetically susceptible to developing autoimmunediseases. This susceptibility is associated with multiple genes plusother risk factors. Genetically predisposed individuals do not alwaysdevelop autoimmune diseases. Three main sets of genes are suspected inmany autoimmune diseases. These genes are related to immunoglobulins,T-cell receptors and the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Thefirst two, which are involved in the recognition of antigens, areinherently variable and susceptible to recombination. These variationsenable the immune system to respond to a very wide variety of invaders,but may also give rise to lymphocytes capable of self-reactivity. Thecontributions of genes outside the MHC complex remain the subject ofresearch, in animal models of disease and in patients.

A person's sex also seems to have some role in the development ofautoimmunity; that is, most autoimmune diseases are sex-related. Nearly75% of the more than 23.5 million Americans who suffer from autoimmunedisease are women, although it is less-frequently acknowledged thatmillions of men also suffer from these diseases. The inventors showedthat publication that, among patients with lung cancer, those withautoimmune disease were more likely to be women (Khan et al., 2016).According to the American Autoimmune Related Diseases Association(AARDA), autoimmune diseases that develop in men tend to be more severe.A few autoimmune diseases that men are just as or more likely to developas women include: ankylosing spondylitis, type 1 diabetes mellitus,granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Crohn's disease, Primary sclerosingcholangitis and psoriasis.

An interesting inverse relationship exists between infectious diseasesand autoimmune diseases. In areas where multiple infectious diseases areendemic, autoimmune diseases are quite rarely seen. The reverse, to someextent, seems to hold true. The hygiene hypothesis attributes thesecorrelations to the immune manipulating strategies of pathogens. Whilstsuch an observation has been variously termed as spurious andineffective, according to some studies, parasite infection is associatedwith reduced activity of autoimmune disease. The putative mechanism isthat the parasite attenuates the host immune response in order toprotect itself. This may provide a serendipitous benefit to a host thatalso suffers from autoimmune disease. The details of parasite immunemodulation are not yet known, but may include secretion ofanti-inflammatory agents or interference with the host immune signaling.

A paradoxical observation has been the strong association of certainmicrobial organisms with autoimmune diseases. For example, Klebsiellapneumoniae and coxsackievirus B have been strongly correlated withankylosing spondylitis and diabetes mellitus type 1, respectively. Thishas been explained by the tendency of the infecting organism to producesuper-antigens that are capable of polyclonal activation ofB-lymphocytes, and production of large amounts of antibodies of varyingspecificities, some of which may be self-reactive.

Certain chemical agents and drugs can also be associated with thegenesis of autoimmune conditions, or conditions that simulate autoimmunediseases. The most striking of these is the drug-induced lupuserythematosus. Usually, withdrawal of the offending drug cures thesymptoms in a patient. Cigarette smoking is now established as a majorrisk factor for both incidence and severity of rheumatoid arthritis.This may relate to abnormal citrullination of proteins, since theeffects of smoking correlate with the presence of antibodies tocitrullinated peptides.

B. Autoantigen Microarray Super Panel (128 Antigen Panel)

An autoantigen is defined as normal protein or protein complex (andsometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system ofpatients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease. These antigensshould not be, under normal conditions, the target of the immune system,but their associated T cells are not deleted and instead attack.

Autoantigen array super panel I contains 128 autoantigens and variousinternal controls. The autoantigens in this panel include most ofnuclear antigens, cytoplasmic antigens, membrane antigen, phospholipidantigens, as well as some novel autoantigens identified from serum andtissues. The antigens in the Super Panel are listed below:

TABLE 1 Autoantigen SuperPanel A100 Aggrecan AGTR Alpha Fodrin (SPTAN1)alpha-actinin Amyloid AQP4 recombinant BPI Cardolipin CENP-A CENP-BChondroitin Sulfate C Chromatin Collagen I Collagen II Collagen IIICollagen IV Collagen V Collagen VI complement C1q complement C3complement C3a complement C3b complement C4 complement C5 complement C6complement C7 complement C8 complement C9 CRP antigen Cytochrome CDecorin-bovine DGPS dsDNA EBNA1 Elastin Entaktin EDTA Factor I Factor PFactorB FactorD FactorH Fibrinogen IV Fibrinogen S Fibronectin GBM(disso) Gliadin (IgG) Glycated Albumin GP2 gP210 H1 H2A H2B H3 H4Hemocyanin Heparan HSPG Heparin Heperan Sulfate Histone-total humangenomic DNA Intrinsic Factor Jo-1 KU (P70/P80) La/SSB Laminin LC1 LKM1M2 Antigen Matrigel MDA5 Mi-2 Mitochondrial antigen MPO Muscarinicreceptor Myelin basic protein (MBP) Myelin-associated glycoprotein-FC(MAG) Myosin Nucleolin Nucleosome antigen Nup62 PCNA Peroxiredoxin 1Phophatidylinositol PL-12 PL-7 PM/Scl-100 PM/Scl-75 POLB PR3Proteoglycan Prothrombin protien Ribo phaspho protein P1 Ribo phasphoprotein P2 Ribo phasphoprotein P0 Ro/SSA (52 KDa) Ro/SSA (60 KDa) Scl-70Sm Sm/RNP SmD SmD1 SmD2 SmD3 SP100 Sphingomyelin SRP54 ssDNA ssRNA T1F1GAMMA Thyroglobulin TNFa Topoisomerase I TPO TTG U1-snRNP-68 U1-snRNP-AU1-snRNP-BB′ U1-snRNP-C Vimentin Vitronectin β2-glycoprotein Iβ2-microglobulin IgG Control anti-IgThe autoantigens are printed on 16-pad FAST slide. Each chip contains 16identical arrays and can process 15 samples and one PBS control.

TABLE 2 Autoantigen Microarray Panel IV CMV-G CMV-M CMV EXT-2 CMV GRADEIII HEPATITIS A HAV CONCENTRATE HSV-1 HSV-2 RUBEOLA RSV ROTAVIRUS SA-11RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE III RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE IV RUBELLA GRADE IV RSVPTOXOPLASMA Antigen VZV VZV GRADE II HUMAN AZUROCDIN House Dust DogDander Dog Epithelia Beef_Bos taurus Shrimp_Penacidae Peanut_Arachishypogaea Wheat, Whole_Triticum aestivum Mite, House Dust_Blomiatropicalis Bermuda_Cynodon dactylon Cedar, Red_Juniper rus virginianaPlantain, English_Plantago lanceolata Honey Bee_Apis mellifera3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase Aminoacyl-tRNASynthetase Asparaginyl-tRNA Synthetase(KS) Glycyl-tRNA Synthetase(EJ)Lysyl-tRNA Synthetase Phenylalanyl-tRNA Synthetase 2 Human Cytosolic5′-nucleotidase 1A glutaminyl-tRNA Synthetase MORC family CW-type zincfinger 3 (MORC3) signal recognition particle 14 kDa SUMO1 activatingenzyme subunit 1(SAE1) tryptophanyl-tRNA Synthetase(WARS) tyrosyl-tRNASynthetase(YARS) ubiquitin-like modifier activating anzyme 2(UBA2)NY-ESO-1 Prostatic Acid Phosphatase Prostate Specific Membrane AntigenMAGEA3 FOLH1 PSA CA 125 CEA PSMA/FOLH1/NAALADase 1 Myosin Light ChainMuscarinic receptor Albumin Bovine fraction V AQP4 DNA Polymerase betaProtein EBV EBNA1 AGTR1(angiotension receptor1) Collagenase ACollagenase D Tetanus toxin Ig Control Anti-IgThe autoantigens are printed on 16-pad FAST slide. Each chip contains1.6 identical arrays and can process 15 samples and one PBS control.

When used herein, the term “populational average” may refer to thepopulation at large, i.e., meaning all patients in the local, regionalor national population in which the subject resides. The term may alsorefer to all cancer patients in the local, regional or nationalpopulation in which the subject resides, including particular cancersubtypes of the patient. The term may also refer to all healthy patientsin the local, regional or national population in which the subjectresides. Alternatively, rather than utilized a populational average, themeasure of risk may be associated with 1 or 2 standard deviations of thepopulational average, or the top ⅓ of populations antibody measures.

III. IMMUNOTHERAPY AND TREATMENT OF IMMUNOTHERAPEUTIC TOXICITY

A. Immunotherapies

Immunotherapy is defined as the treatment of disease by inducing,enhancing, or suppressing an immune response Immunotherapies designed toelicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activationimmunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress areclassified as suppression immunotherapies Immunomodulatory regimensoften have fewer side effects than existing drugs, including lesspotential for creating resistance when treating microbial disease.

Cancer immunotherapy is an example of an activation immunotherapy.Cell-based immunotherapies are effective for some cancers Immuneeffector cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells,natural killer cells (NK Cell), cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), etc.,work together to defend the body against cancer by targeting abnormalantigens expressed on the surface of tumor cells. Therapies such asgranulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), interferons, imiquimodand cellular membrane fractions from bacteria are licensed for medicaluse. Others including IL-2, IL-7, IL-12, various chemokines, syntheticcytosine phosphate-guanosine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides and glucans areinvolved in clinical and preclinical studies.

Cancer immunotherapy attempts to stimulate the immune system to destroytumors. A variety of strategies are in use or are undergoing researchand testing. Randomized controlled studies in different cancersresulting in significant increase in survival and disease free periodhave been reported and its efficacy is enhanced by 20-30% whencell-based immunotherapy is combined with conventional treatmentmethods.

For example, extraction of G-CSF lymphocytes from the blood andexpanding in vitro against a tumor antigen before reinjecting the cellswith appropriate stimulatory cytokines can destroy the tumor cells thatexpress the antigen. BCG immunotherapy for early stage (non-invasive)bladder cancer instills attenuated live bacteria into the bladder and iseffective in preventing recurrence in up to two thirds of cases. Topicalimmunotherapy utilizes an immune enhancement cream (imiquimod) whichproduces interferon, causing the recipient's killer T cells to destroywarts, actinic keratoses, basal cell cancer, vaginal intraepithelialneoplasia, squamous cell cancer, cutaneous lymphoma, and superficialmalignant melanoma. Injection immunotherapy (“intralesional” or“intratumoral”) uses mumps, candida, the HPV vaccine or trichophytinantigen injections to treat warts (HPV-induced tumors). Adoptive celltransfer has been tested on lung and other cancers.

Dendritic cells can be stimulated to activate a cytotoxic responsetowards an antigen. Dendritic cells, a type of antigen presenting cell,are harvested from the person needing the immunotherapy. These cells arethen either pulsed with an antigen or tumor lysate or transfected with aviral vector, causing them to display the antigen. Upon transfusion intothe person, these activated cells present the antigen to the effectorlymphocytes (CD4+ helper T cells, cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and B cells).This initiates a cytotoxic response against tumor cells expressing theantigen (against which the adaptive response has now been primed). Thecancer vaccine Sipuleucel-T is one example of this approach.

Adoptive cell transfer in vitro cultivates autologous, extracted T cellsfor later transfusion. The T cells may already target tumor cells.Alternatively, they may be genetically engineered to do so. These Tcells, referred to as tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL), aremultiplied using high concentrations of Interleukin-2, anti-CD3 andallo-reactive feeder cells. These T cells are then transferred back intothe person along with administration of IL-2 to further boost theiranti-cancer activity.

Before reinfusion, lymphodepletion of the recipient is required toeliminate regulatory T cells as well as unmodified, endogenouslymphocytes that compete with the transferred cells for homeostaticcytokines. Lymphodepletion can be achieved by total body irradiation.Transferred cells multiplied in vivo and persisted in peripheral bloodin many people, sometimes representing levels of 75% of all CD8⁺ T cellsat 6-12 months after infusion. As of 2012, clinical trials formetastatic melanoma were ongoing at multiple sites.

Autologous immune enhancement therapy use a person's own peripheralblood-derived natural killer cells, cytotoxic T lymphocytes and otherrelevant immune cells are expanded in vitro and then reinfused. Thetherapy has been tested against Hepatitis C, Chronic fatigue syndromeand HHV6 infection.

Genetically engineered T cells are created by harvesting T cells andthen infecting the T cells with a retrovirus that contains a copy of a Tcell receptor (TCR) gene that is specialized to recognize tumorantigens. The virus integrates the receptor into the T cells' genome.The cells are expanded non-specifically and/or stimulated. The cells arethen reinfused and produce an immune response against the tumor cells.The technique has been tested on refractory stage IV metastaticmelanomas and advanced skin cancer.

B. Immunotherapeutic Toxicity and Treatment Considerations

In general, management of irAEs includes the early recognition and theuse of immunosuppressive agents, such as steroids or anti-TNF-α, basedon the severity of the irAEs. Most toxicities are mild to moderate,involve mainly skin and GI events, while treatment-related deaths arevery rare. Furthermore, the incidence and severity of toxicities is, insome cases, dose related.

The onset and outcome of irAEs seems to vary according to the organsinvolved and, although most occur within the first 3 months oftreatment, there are some specific toxicities reported months after theend of therapy. The majority of irAEs, however, are seen within thefirst 3 months of therapy, and the majority also resolve within thissame time frame. It is evident that dermatologic irAEs appear usuallyafter 2-3 weeks and typically resolve quickly, GI and hepatic irAEsappear after 6-7 weeks, while endocrinopathies can be diagnosed evenafter 9 weeks and may take some time to resolve, and rarely may beirreversible.

Skin toxicity, such as rash and pruritus, is common. After eliminatingother causes, topical and/or oral steroid therapy can be used, withreduction or skipping of one or more immunotherapy dosings if thecondition does not resolve. Only for severe events, will high-dosesteroid therapy given intravenously, followed by oral steroids onimprovement, be used.

GI adverse events such as diarrhea and colitis are at least as common asskin toxicity. Most treatment guidelines include grading and severityassessment, followed by anti-diarrheic diet and hydration and monitorclosely until resolution. Treatment with oral budesonide or othermoderate dose steroid can be initiated if the condition persists. Inserious/severe cases, treatment with high dose steroids is required. Ifno response is seen in one week, then immunosuppressive therapy withanti-TNF inhibitors (5 mg/kg remicade, infliximab) may be started.

Liver toxicity, while somewhat more rare, is not uncommon. Ifhepatotoxicity occurs, the patient should be admitted to the hospitalfor evaluation and close monitoring and immunotherapy stopped untilhepatotoxicity is resolved. Intravenous corticosteroids should bestarted, and if no improvement, an immunosuppressive agent may be added,further supplemented by tacrolimus if needed.

Endocrine toxicity is fairly common advent in patients receivingimmunotherapy. Therefore, routine monitoring of thyroid function atleast during treatment and close monitoring of other endocrine functiontests is now recommended. Abnormalities are usually easily correctedwith hormone replacement. Hypophysitis can remain undetected since thesymptoms might be vague, such as fatigue, hypotension or myalgias, andmay be missed unless the examining clinician is aware of the risk.Management includes hormone replacement, according to hormonedysfunction (thyroxine, testosterone, estradiol, or more commonlysteroids, such as hydrocortisone). Endocrinopathies in general can bemanaged with a short course of high dose steroid treatment, along withappropriate hormone replacement.

Autoimmune neuropathies are rare but do occur, ranging from mildparesthesias to severe neurologic syndromes. If neuropathy is consideredto be significant, immunotherpay should be stopped and treatment withoral or i.v. steroids started. Ocural toxicity is also rare and itincludes conjunctivitis or uveitis, which usually respond well totopical steroid treatment.

Other less common toxicities include pneumonitis (prompt high-dosesteroid initiation and close monitoring of symptoms, oxygen needs andradiological findings), renal toxicity (close monitoring of creatinine,steroid administration and immunotherapy interruption until resolution),and myocarditis.

IV. IMMUNODETECTION METHODS

In still further embodiments, the present disclosure concernsimmunodetection methods for binding, purifying, removing, quantifyingand otherwise generally detecting autoantibodies.

Some immunodetection methods include enzyme linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), immunoradiometric assay,fluoroimmunoassay, chemiluminescent assay, bioluminescent assay, andWestern blot to mention a few. In particular, a competitive assay forthe detection and quantitation of auto-antibodies directed to specificviral epitopes in samples also is provided. The steps of various usefulimmunodetection methods have been described in the scientificliterature, such as, e.g., Doolittle and Ben-Zeev (1999), Gulbis andGaland 0993), De Jager et al. (1993), Nakamura et al. (1987) and Wild,D. (2013). In general, the immunobinding methods include obtaining asample suspected of containing an autoantibody, and contacting thesample with a first antigen in accordance with the present disclosure,as the case may be, under conditions effective to allow the formation ofimmunocomplexes.

The immunobinding methods also include methods for detecting andquantifying the amount of autoantibodies in a sample and the detectionand quantification of any immune complexes formed during the bindingprocess. Here, one would obtain a sample suspected of containingautoantibodies, and contact the sample with an antigen that binds theautoantibodies or components thereof, followed by detecting andquantifying the amount of immune complexes formed under the specificconditions. In terms of antibody detection, the biological sampleanalyzed may be any sample that is suspected of containingautoantibodies, such as a tissue section or specimen, a homogenizedtissue extract, a biological fluid, including blood and serum, or asecretion, such as feces or urine.

Contacting the chosen biological sample with the antigen under effectiveconditions and for a period of time sufficient to allow the formation ofimmune complexes (primary immune complexes) is generally a matter ofsimply adding the antigen composition to the sample and incubating themixture for a period of time long enough for the antigen to form immunecomplexes with, i.e., to bind to autoantibodies present. After thistime, the sample-antibody composition, such as a tissue section, ELISAplate, dot blot or Western blot, will generally be washed to remove anynon-specifically bound antibody species, allowing only those antibodiesspecifically bound within the primary immune complexes to be detected.

In general, the detection of immunocomplex formation is well known inthe art and may be achieved through the application of numerousapproaches. These methods are generally based upon the detection of alabel or marker, such as any of those radioactive, fluorescent,biological and enzymatic tags. Patents concerning the use of such labelsinclude U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,817,837, 3,850,752, 3,939,350, 3,996,345,4,277,437, 4,275,149 and 4,366,241. Of course, one may find additionaladvantages through the use of a secondary binding ligand such as asecond antibody and/or a biotin/avidin ligand binding arrangement, as isknown in the art.

The antibody employed in the detection may itself be linked to adetectable label, wherein one would then simply detect this label,thereby allowing the amount of the primary immune complexes in thecomposition to be determined. Alternatively, the first antibody thatbecomes bound within the primary immune complexes may be detected bymeans of a second binding ligand that has binding affinity for theantibody. In these cases, the second binding ligand may be linked to adetectable label. The second binding ligand is itself often an antibody,which may thus be termed a “secondary” antibody. The primary immunecomplexes are contacted with the labeled, secondary binding ligand, orantibody, under effective conditions and for a period of time sufficientto allow the formation of secondary immune complexes. The secondaryimmune complexes are then generally washed to remove anynon-specifically bound labeled secondary antibodies or ligands, and theremaining label in the secondary immune complexes is then detected.

Further methods include the detection of primary immune complexes by atwo-step approach. A second binding ligand, such as an antibody that hasbinding affinity for the antibody, is used to form secondary immunecomplexes, as described above. After washing, the secondary immunecomplexes are contacted with a third binding ligand or antibody that hasbinding affinity for the second antibody, again under effectiveconditions and for a period of time sufficient to allow the formation ofimmune complexes (tertiary immune complexes). The third ligand orantibody is linked to a detectable label, allowing detection of thetertiary immune complexes thus formed. This system may provide forsignal amplification if this is desired.

Another known method of immunodetection takes advantage of theimmuno-PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) methodology. The PCR method issimilar to the Cantor method up to the incubation with biotinylated DNA,however, instead of using multiple rounds of streptavidin andbiotinylated DNA incubation, the DNA/biotin/streptavidin/antibodycomplex is washed out with a low pH or high salt buffer that releasesthe antibody. The resulting wash solution is then used to carry out aPCR reaction with suitable primers with appropriate controls. At leastin theory, the enormous amplification capability and specificity of PCRcan be utilized to detect a single antigen molecule.

A. ELISAs

Immunoassays, in their most simple and direct sense, are binding assays.Certain preferred immunoassays are the various types of enzyme linkedimmunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and radioimmunoassays (RIA) known in theart Immunohistochemical detection using tissue sections is alsoparticularly useful. However, it will be readily appreciated thatdetection is not limited to such techniques, and western blotting, dotblotting, FACS analyses, and the like may also be used.

In one exemplary ELISA, the antigens are immobilized onto a selectedsurface exhibiting protein affinity, such as a well in a polystyrenemicrotiter plate. Then, a test composition suspected of containing theautoantibodies is added to the wells. After binding and washing toremove non-specifically bound immune complexes, the bound autoantibodiesmay be detected. Detection may be achieved by the addition of anantibody that binds the Fc portion of the autoantibodies and that islinked to a detectable label. This type of ELISA is a simple “sandwichELISA.”

In another exemplary ELISA, the samples suspected of containing theautoantibodies are immobilized onto the well surface and then contactedwith antigen. After binding and washing to remove non-specifically boundimmune complexes, the bound antigens are detected. Again, the immunecomplexes may be detected using a second antibody that has bindingaffinity for the antigen at an alternative site, with the secondantibody being linked to a detectable label.

Irrespective of the format employed, ELISAs have certain features incommon, such as coating, incubating and binding, washing to removenon-specifically bound species, and detecting the bound immunecomplexes. These are described below.

In coating a plate with antigen, one will generally incubate the wellsof the plate with a solution of the antigen, either overnight or for aspecified period of hours. The wells of the plate will then be washed toremove incompletely adsorbed material. Any remaining available surfacesof the wells are then “coated” with a non-specific protein that isantigenically neutral with regard to the test antisera. These includebovine serum albumin (BSA), casein or solutions of milk powder. Thecoating allows for blocking of non-specific adsorption sites on theimmobilizing surface and thus reduces the background caused bynon-specific binding of autoantibodies onto the surface.

In ELISAs, it is probably more customary to use a secondary or tertiarydetection means rather than a direct procedure. Thus, after binding ofan antigen to the well, coating with a non-reactive material to reducebackground, and washing to remove unbound material, the immobilizingsurface is contacted with the biological sample to be tested underconditions effective to allow immune complex (antigen/antibody)formation. Detection of the immune complex then requires a labeledsecondary binding ligand or antibody, and a secondary binding ligand orantibody in conjunction with a labeled tertiary antibody or a thirdbinding ligand.

“Under conditions effective to allow immune complex (antigen/antibody)formation” means that the conditions preferably include diluting theantigens and/or antibodies with solutions such as BSA, bovine gammaglobulin (BGG) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS)/Tween. These addedagents also tend to assist in the reduction of nonspecific background.

The “suitable” conditions also mean that the incubation is at atemperature or for a period of time sufficient to allow effectivebinding. Incubation steps are typically from about 1 to 2 to 4 hours orso, at temperatures preferably on the order of 25° C. to 27° C., or maybe overnight at about 4° C. or so.

Following all incubation steps in an ELISA, the contacted surface iswashed so as to remove non-complexed material. A preferred washingprocedure includes washing with a solution such as PBS/Tween, or boratebuffer. Following the formation of specific immune complexes between thetest sample and the originally bound material, and subsequent washing,the occurrence of even minute amounts of immune complexes may bedetermined.

To provide a detecting means, the second or third antibody will have anassociated label to allow detection. Preferably, this will be an enzymethat will generate color development upon incubating with an appropriatechromogenic substrate. Thus, for example, one will desire to contact orincubate the first and second immune complex with a urease, glucoseoxidase, alkaline phosphatase or hydrogen peroxidase-conjugated antibodyfor a period of time and under conditions that favor the development offurther immune complex formation (e.g., incubation for 2 hours at roomtemperature in a PBS-containing solution such as PBS-Tween).

After incubation with the labeled antibody, and subsequent to washing toremove unbound material, the amount of label is quantified, e.g., byincubation with a chromogenic substrate such as urea, or bromocresolpurple, or 2,2′-azino-di-(3-ethyl-benzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS),or H₂O₂, in the case of peroxidase as the enzyme label. Quantificationis then achieved by measuring the degree of color generated, e.g., usinga visible spectra spectrophotometer.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure contemplates the use ofcompetitive formats. This is particularly useful in the detection ofautoantibodies in sample. In competition based assays, an unknown amountof analyte or competing antibody is determined by its ability todisplace a known amount of labeled antibody or analyte. Thus, thequantifiable loss of a signal is an indication of the amount of unknownantibody or analyte in a sample.

Here, the inventors propose the use of labeled autoantibodies todetermine the amount of autoantibodies in a sample. The basic formatwould include contacting a known amount of autoantibodies (linked to adetectable label) with the antigen. The antigen is preferably attachedto a support. After binding of the labeled monoclonal antibody to thesupport, the sample is added and incubated under conditions permittingany unlabeled autoantibodies in the sample to compete with, and hencedisplace, the labeled monoclonal antibody. By measuring either the lostlabel or the label remaining (and subtracting that from the originalamount of bound label), one can determine how much non-labeled antibodyis bound to the support, and thus how much autoantibody was present inthe sample.

B. Western Blot

The Western blot (alternatively, protein immunoblot) is an analyticaltechnique used to detect specific proteins in a given sample of tissuehomogenate or extract. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native ordenatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide (denaturingconditions) or by the 3-D structure of the protein(native/non-denaturing conditions). The proteins are then transferred toa membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are probed(detected) using antibodies specific to the target protein.

Samples may be taken from whole tissue or from cell culture. In mostcases, solid tissues are first broken down mechanically using a blender(for larger sample volumes), using a homogenizer (smaller volumes), orby sonication. Cells may also be broken open by one of the abovemechanical methods. However, it should be noted that bacteria, virus orenvironmental samples can be the source of protein and thus Westernblotting is not restricted to cellular studies only. Assorteddetergents, salts, and buffers may be employed to encourage lysis ofcells and to solubilize proteins. Protease and phosphatase inhibitorsare often added to prevent the digestion of the sample by its ownenzymes. Tissue preparation is often done at cold temperatures to avoidprotein denaturing.

The proteins of the sample are separated using gel electrophoresis.Separation of proteins may be by isoelectric point (pI), molecularweight, electric charge, or a combination of these factors. The natureof the separation depends on the treatment of the sample and the natureof the gel. This is a very useful way to determine a protein. It is alsopossible to use a two-dimensional (2-D) gel which spreads the proteinsfrom a single sample out in two dimensions. Proteins are separatedaccording to isoelectric point (pH at which they have neutral netcharge) in the first dimension, and according to their molecular weightin the second dimension.

In order to make the proteins accessible to antibody detection, they aremoved from within the gel onto a membrane made of nitrocellulose orpolyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF). The membrane is placed on top of thegel, and a stack of filter papers placed on top of that. The entirestack is placed in a buffer solution which moves up the paper bycapillary action, bringing the proteins with it. Another method fortransferring the proteins is called electroblotting and uses an electriccurrent to pull proteins from the gel into the PVDF or nitrocellulosemembrane. The proteins move from within the gel onto the membrane whilemaintaining the organization they had within the gel. As a result ofthis blotting process, the proteins are exposed on a thin surface layerfor detection (see below). Both varieties of membrane are chosen fortheir non-specific protein binding properties (i.e., binds all proteinsequally well). Protein binding is based upon hydrophobic interactions,as well as charged interactions between the membrane and protein.Nitrocellulose membranes are cheaper than PVDF, but are far more fragileand do not stand up well to repeated probing. The uniformity and overalleffectiveness of transfer of protein from the gel to the membrane can bechecked by staining the membrane with Coomassie Brilliant Blue orPonceau S dyes. Once transferred, proteins are detected using labeledprimary antibodies, or unlabeled primary antibodies followed by indirectdetection using labeled protein A or secondary labeled antibodiesbinding to the Fc region of the primary antibodies.

C. Immunodetection Kits

In still further embodiments, the present disclosure concernsimmunodetection kits for use with the immunodetection methods describedabove. The immunodetection kits will thus comprise, in suitablecontainer means, one or more antibodies that bind to autoantigens, andoptionally an immunodetection reagent.

In certain embodiments, the antibody may be pre-bound to a solidsupport, such as a column matrix and/or well of a microtiter plate. Theimmunodetection reagents of the kit may take any one of a variety offorms, including those detectable labels that are associated with orlinked to the given antibody. Detectable labels that are associated withor attached to a secondary binding ligand are also contemplated.Exemplary secondary ligands are those secondary antibodies that havebinding affinity for the first antibody.

Further suitable immunodetection reagents for use in the present kitsinclude the two-component reagent that comprises a secondary antibodythat has binding affinity for the first antibody, along with a thirdantibody that has binding affinity for the second antibody, the thirdantibody being linked to a detectable label. As noted above, a number ofexemplary labels are known in the art and all such labels may beemployed in connection with the present disclosure.

The kits may further comprise a suitably aliquoted composition of theantigen or antigens, whether labeled or unlabeled, as may be used toprepare a standard curve for a detection assay. The kits may containantibody-label conjugates either in fully conjugated form, in the formof intermediates, or as separate moieties to be conjugated by the userof the kit. The components of the kits may be packaged either in aqueousmedia or in lyophilized form.

The container means of the kits will generally include at least onevial, test tube, flask, bottle, syringe or other container means, intowhich the antibody may be placed, or preferably, suitably aliquoted. Thekits of the present disclosure will also typically include a means forcontaining the antibody, antigen, and any other reagent containers inclose confinement for commercial sale. Such containers may includeinjection or blow-molded plastic containers into which the desired vialsare retained.

In addition, there are multiple commercialized multiplex assays that areused in clinical laboratories to evaluate for autoantigens and/orallergens. These formats include spotted microarrays, bead/particlebased assays (e.g., Luminex), line probe (e.g., Innogenetics), andcartridges (Hitachi Optigen).

V. EXAMPLES

The following examples are included to demonstrate preferredembodiments. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art thatthe techniques disclosed in the examples that follow representtechniques discovered by the inventors to function well in the practiceof embodiments, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modesfor its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light ofthe present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in thespecific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like orsimilar result without departing from the spirit and scope of thedisclosure.

Example 1

In addition to profiling autoantibody profiles in healthy individuals(FIG. 1 ), the inventors have performed similar analyses in patientswith cancer undergoing immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy (FIG. 2 ).With pilot funding from the David M. Crowley Foundation and the CarlsonTrust, the inventors collected sera on patients receiving immunecheckpoint inhibitor therapy for cancer diagnoses. These datademonstrate that, as hypothesized, there is considerable variation inbaseline autoimmunity among patients (none of whom had a pre-existingclinical autoimmune diagnosis) and that these profiles may change inresponse to exposure to immunotherapy. Consistent with our hypothesis,dynamic increases in autoantibody profiles are particularly apparentamong those individuals with the highest baseline autoimmunity (FIG. 2 ;patients 1, 4, and 6).

The protein array system that the inventors have developed forautoantibody screening can be used to assess antibodies against anyantigen. To date, the inventors have developed an extended autoantibodyprofile that includes 18 nuclear antigens, 23 cytosolic/matrix antigens,35 tissue-/organ-specific antigens, 43 cancer-specific antigens, and 18pathogen-specific antigens. These panels have been regularly updated,and are therefore relatively exhaustive. However, depending on specificclinical context and questions, additional antigens can be validated andadded.

The inventors' prior studies in thousands of patients with autoimmunediseases and normal controls position them to apply these technologiesto oncology populations treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Inaddition to developing dynamic antigen panels, the inventors havedeveloped processes for imputation of HLA genotypes using the ImmunochipV2 platform and for determination of HLA regulatory elements (Raj etal., 2016), as well as T-cell and B-cell receptor sequencing (FIG. 3 ).Accordingly, these biomarkers are primed for clinical validation becausewe have already established accuracy, precision, analytical sensitivityand specificity, the reportable result range, reference intervals,reproducibility, and quality control in other populations (individualswith autoimmune disease and healthy controls). Similarly, the inventors'prior cross-trial data analyses establish our abilities to integrate andanalyze biomarker and clinical data.

TABLE 3 Clinical Trials and Associated Biospecimens Accrual TrialIndication Treatment N Time-points Status (as of Jun. 17, 2016) E4412Hodgkin's Ipi. Nivo, Bren 70 Baseline, early, late Activated January2014 32 EA5142 NSCLC Nivo 714 Baseline, recurrence Activated May 2016 0

TABLE 4 Sample Size Estimation per Group for Evaluating PredictionPerformance Alternative AUC 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 Null 0.5 115 64 40 2820 AUC 0.55 255 112 62 39 27 0.6 987 244 107 59 37 0.65 — 921 226 99 54Null AUC refers to the Area Under Curve for each ROC under the nullhypothesis, which represents the clinically meaningful predictionperformance. Alternative AUC refers to AUC under alternative hypothesis,which represents the expected prediction performance for the new assays.

Example 2

FIG. 4 shows assessment of 50 auto-antibodies in healthy controls,patients without AE and patient with AE. A stringent cutoff was used toonly retain auto-antibodies with SNR>3 in all samples. As can be seen,auto-antibodies in the marked rectangle seem to be higher in patientswho developed toxicity.

FIG. 5 is an ANOVA test that identified auto-antibodies with significantchanges. Patients with AE show significantly elevated levels ofcomplement protein C7, entaktin EDTA and fibrinogen S. It is notablethat the fibrinogen, a blood coagulation protein, promotes autoimmunityand demyelination via chemokine release and antigen presentation, andautoimmune response again fibrinogen mediates inflammatory arthritis inmice. Moreover, anti-entaktin antibodies appear in patients withsystemic lupus erythematosus and related disorders.

FIGS. 6-7 present data from the current patient cohort on four differentself-antigens for which patients who developed irAes had statisticallysignificant increases in the amounts of autoantibodies produced. Theseresults are representative of the results obtained for the analysis ofautoantibodies during immunoregulatory therapies. These antigens arecorrelating with toxicity in this patient cohort, which havepredominantly undergone anti-PD1 or PDL1 therapies. Patients in othertherapies, such as anti-CTLA4 therapy, may develop different antibodies.Similarly, patients developing autoimmune toxicity to specific organs,such as thyroid, bowel, lung, etc., are likely to developtarget-specific antibodies. Thus, the panel of antigens that theinventors are utilizing is designed to allow simultaneous assessment ofthe potential for several autoimmune toxicities in patients at theoutset and during immunotherapy.

FIGS. 8-9 show selection of IgG that may predict toxicity. Based oncross validation, baseline level of two IgG's can predict the toxicityat 65% accuracy, which, considering the toxicity rate is about 19/51(37%). Entaktin and fibrinogen are consistently different betweentoxicity and non-toxicity groups both in multivariate and univariateanalysis. As more patient are recruited, a higher prediction power maybe achieved to permit testing of the prediction model in an independenttesting set.

Table 5 presents the frequencies of autoantibodies binding a subset ofthe antigens from the arrays in cohorts of healthy normal individuals(NC), SLE patients, SSC patients, and IM patients. These data illustratethe frequencies of autoantibodies against individual antigens variesamong the cohorts and that no single antigen is recognized byautoantibodies present in every patient with any of these diseases.Table 6 presents statistical data concerning the predictive value ofdetecting autoantibodies against each of these antigens for the threediseases. These data illustrate that although some of the autoantibodiesare very predictive for a given antibody, none are uniquely present onlyin individuals with a given disease. Thus, the development of aneffective assay to uniquely identify individuals with a specific diseasewith high sensitivity and specificity requires multivariant analysiswith several antigens.

TABLE 5 IgG Autoantibody Score Data NC (n = 330) SLE (n = 140) SSC (n =72) IM (n = 74) ID Cut-off No. +ve +ve rate No. +ve +ve rate No. +ve +verate No. +ve +ve rate Nucleosome 11.9 6 1.8% 121 86.4% 26 36.1% 19 25.7%Sm 13.8 12 3.6% 110 78.6% 3 4.2% 1 1.4% ssDNA 12.5 10 3.0% 100 71.4% 1115.3% 5 6.8% Ribo phaspho protein P 12.3 5 1.5% 95 67.9% 17 23.6% 1418.9% dsDNA 14.5 10 3.0% 89 63.6% 2 2.8% 1 1.4% U1-snRNP-C 15.7 5 1.5%86 61.4% 14 19.4% 8 10.8% Chromatin 13.9 2 0.6% 86 61.4% 2 2.8% 1 1.4%U1-snRNP-BB′ 7.8 6 1.8% 85 60.7% 16 22.2% 3 4.1% SmD 11.0 7 2.1% 7755.0% 7 9.7% 3 4.1% U1-snRNP-68 13.4 2 0.6% 70 50.0% 12 16.7% 1 1.4%dsRNA 12.3 9 2.7% 62 44.3% 3 4.2% 0 0.0% KU -P70/P80 13.1 8 2.4% 5438.6% 10 13.9% 5 6.8% Ro/SSA-60 KDa 12.3 8 2.4% 53 37.9% 6 8.3% 0 0.0%Ribo phaspho protein P 12.2 4 1.2% 51 36.4% 10 13.9% 0 0.0% CENP-B 5.110 3.0% 50 35.7% 20 27.8% 8 0.8% U1-snRNP-A 9.9 9 2.7% 47 33.6% 13 18.1%2 2.7% Ribo phasphoprotein P 13.2 3 0.9% 47 33.6% 4 5.6% 1 1.4%Ro/SSA-52 KDa 11.9 10 3.0% 46 32.9% 10 13.9% 24 32.4% Scl-70 11.5 144.2% 27 19.3% 44 61.1% 1 1.4% Topoisomerase I 14.3 13 3.9% 17 12.1% 4055.6% 1 1.4% TTG 11.3 4 1.2% 9 6.4% 34 47.2% 13 17.6% TPO 13.3 10 3.0%15 10.7% 28 38.9% 1 1.4% Cardolipin 20.4 18 5.5% 22 15.7% 17 23.6% 2432.4% Ro/SSA-52 KDa 11.9 10 3.0% 46 32.9% 10 13.9% 24 32.4% Jo-1 27.6 133.9% 13 9.3% 4 5.6% 24 32.4% Mi-2 11.1 11 3.3% 21 15.0% 13 18.1% 1621.6% PCNA 18.7 8 2.4% 28 20.0% 4 5.6% 14 18.9% Collagen IV 15.5 3 0.9%9 6.4% 12 16.7% 12 16.2% LC1 12.6 12 3.6% 36 25.7% 6 8.3% 12 16.2%

TABLE 6 IgG Autoantibody Score Predictive Value Predictive value for SLEPredictive value for SSC Predictive value for IM Sensi- Speci- Sensi-Speci- Sensi- Speci- ID PPV NPV tivity ficity PPV NPV tivity ficity PPVNPV tivity ficity Nucleosome 95.3% 94.5% 86.4% 98.2% 81.3% 87.6% 36.1%98.2% 76.0% #VALUE! 25.7% 98.2% Sm 90.2% 91.4% 78.6% 96.4% 20.0% 82.2%4.2% 96.4% 7.7% #VALUE! 1.4% 96.4% ssDNA 90.9% 88.9% 71.4% 97.0% 52.4%84.0% 15.3% 97.0% 33.3% #VALUE! 6.8% 97.0% Ribo phaspho protein P1 95.0%87.8% 67.9% 98.5% 77.3% 85.5% 23.6% 98.5% 73.7% #VALUE! 18.9% 98.5%dsDNA 89.9% 86.3% 63.6% 97.0% 16.7% 82.1% 2.8% 97.0% 9.1% #VALUE! 1.4%97.0% U1-snRNP-C 94.5% 85.8% 61.4% 98.5% 73.7% 84.9% 19.4% 98.5% 61.5%#VALUE! 10.8% 98.5% Chromatin 97.7% 85.9% 61.4% 99.4% 50.0% 82.4% 2.8%99.4% 33.3% #VALUE! 1.4% 99.4% U1-snRNP-BB′ 93.4% 85.5% 60.7% 98.2%72.7% 85.3% 22.2% 98.2% 33.3% #VALUE! 4.1% 98.2% SmD 91.7% 83.7% 55.0%97.9% 50.0% 83.2% 9.7% 97.9% 30.0% #VALUE! 4.1% 97.9% U1-snRNP-68 97.2%82.4% 50.0% 99.4% 85.7% 84.5% 16.7% 99.4% 33.3% #VALUE! 1.4% 99.4% dsRNA87.3% 80.5% 44.3% 97.3% 25.0% 82.3% 4.2% 97.3% 0.0% #VALUE! 0.0% 97.3%KU-P70/P80 87.1% 78.9% 38.6% 97.6% 55.6% 83.9% 13.9% 97.6% 38.5% #VALUE!6.8% 97.6% Ro/SSA-60 KDa 86.9% 78.7% 37.9% 97.6% 42.9% 83.0% 8.3% 97.6%0.0% #VALUE! 0.0% 97.6% Ribo phaspho protein P2 92.7% 78.6% 36.4% 98.8%71.4% 84.0% 13.9% 98.8% 0.0% #VALUE! 0.0% 98.8% CENP-B 83.3% 78.0% 35.7%97.0% 66.7% 86.0% 27.8% 97.0% 44.4% #VALUE! 10.8% 97.0% U1-snRNP-A 83.9%77.5% 33.6% 97.3% 59.1% 84.5% 18.1% 97.3% 18.2% #VALUE! 2.7% 97.3% Ribophaspho protein P0 94.0% 77.9% 33.6% 99.1% 57.1% 82.8% 5.6% 99.1% 25.0%#VALUE! 1.4% 99.1% Ro/SSA-52 KDa 82.1% 77.3% 32.9% 97.0% 50.0% 83.8%13.9% 97.0% 70.6% #VALUE! 32.4% 97.0% Scl-70 65.9% 73.7% 19.3% 95.8%75.9% 91.9% 61.1% 95.8% 6.7% #VALUE! 1.4% 95.8% Topoisomerase I 56.7%72.0% 12.1% 96.1% 75.5% 90.8% 55.6% 96.1% 7.1% #VALUE! 1.4% 96.1% TTG69.2% 71.3% 6.4% 98.8% 89.5% 89.6% 47.2% 98.8% 76.5% #VALUE! 17.6% 98.8%TPO 60.0% 71.9% 10.7% 97.0% 73.7% 87.9% 38.9% 97.0% 9.1% #VALUE! 1.4%97.0% Cardolipin 55.0% 72.6% 15.7% 94.5% 48.6% 85.0% 23.6% 94.5% 57.1%81.3% 32.4% 94.5% Ro/SSA-52 KDa 82.1% 77.3% 32.9% 97.0% 50.0% 83.8%13.9% 97.0% 70.6% 81.6% 32.4% 97.0% Jo-1 50.0% 71.4% 9.3% 96.1% 23.5%82.3% 5.6% 96.1% 64.9% 81.9% 32.4% 96.1% Mi-2 65.6% 72.8% 15.0% 96.7%54.2% 84.4% 18.1% 96.7% 59.3% 81.5% 21.6% 96.7% PCNA 77.8% 74.2% 20.0%97.6% 33.3% 82.6% 5.6% 97.6% 63.6% 81.9% 18.9% 97.6% Collagen IV 75.0%71.4% 6.4% 99.1% 80.0% 84.5% 16.7% 99.1% 80.0% 81.5% 16.2% 99.1% LC175.0% 75.4% 25.7% 96.4% 33.3% 82.8% 8.3% 96.4% 50.0% 81.8% 16.2% 96.4%

All of the compositions and methods disclosed and claimed herein can bemade and executed without undue experimentation in light of the presentdisclosure. While the compositions and methods of this disclosure havebeen described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent tothose of skill in the art that variations may be applied to thecompositions and methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps ofthe method described herein without departing from the concept, spiritand scope of the disclosure. More specifically, it will be apparent thatcertain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related maybe substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similarresults would be achieved. All such similar substitutes andmodifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to bewithin the spirit, scope and concept of the disclosure as defined by theappended claims.

VI. REFERENCES

The following references, to the extent that they provide exemplaryprocedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein, arespecifically incorporated herein by reference.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method of treating a human subject with cancerto mitigate or prevent cancer immunotherapy toxicity comprising: (a)providing an antibody-containing sample from said subject wherein thesample is obtained prior to treatment with cancer immunotherapy; (b)assessing two or more autoantibody levels in said sample, wherein thetwo or more autoantibody levels comprise entaktin autoantibody level andfibrinogen autoantibody level; and (c) treating said subject with: (i) acancer immunotherapy when said autoantibody levels are belowpopulational average; (ii) a non-immunotherapy cancer treatment whensaid autoantibody levels are above populational average; or (iii) acancer immunotherapy and a toxicity mitigating therapy when saidautoantibody levels are above populational average, wherein treatingsaid subject mitigates or prevents cancer immunotherapy toxicity in saidsubject.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the sample is a whole blood,serum, plasma, or other body fluid.
 3. The method of claim 1, whereinthe assessing two or more autoantibody levels in said sample, furthercomprises assessing autoantibody levels to: (a) two or more antigens,wherein the two or more antigens comprise: A100, Aggrecan, AGTR, AlphaFodrin (SPTAN1), alpha-actinin, Amyloid, AQP4 recombinant, BPI,Cardolipin, CENP-A, CENP-B, Chondroitin Sulfate C, Chromatin, CollagenI, Collagen II, Collagen III, Collagen IV, Collagen V, Collagen VI,complement C1q, complement C3, complement C3a, complement C3b,complement C4, complement C5, complement C6, complement C7, complementC8, complement C9, CRP antigen, Cytochrome C, Decorin-bovine, DGPS,dsDNA, EBNA1, Elastin, Entaktin EDTA, Factor I, Factor P, FactorB,FactorD, FactorH, Fibrinogen IV, Fibrinogen S, Fibronectin, GBM (disso),Gliadin (IgG), Glycated Albumin, GP2, gP210, H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4,Hemocyanin, Heparan HSPG, Heparin, Heperan Sulfate, Histone-total, humangenomic DNA, Intrinsic Factor, Jo-1, KU (P70/P80), La/SSB, Laminin, LC1,LKM1, M2 Antigen, Matrigel, MDAS, Mi-2, Mitochondrial antigen, MPO,Muscarinic receptor, Myelin basic protein (MBP), Myelin-associatedglycoprotein-FC (MAG), Myosin, Nucleolin, Nucleosome antigen, Nup62,PCNA, Peroxiredoxin 1, Phophatidylinositol, PL-12, PL-7, PM/Scl-100,PM/Scl-75, POLB, PR3, Proteoglycan, Prothrombin protein, Ribo phasphoprotein P1, Ribo phaspho protein P2, Ribo phasphoprotein P0, Ro/SSA (52KDa), Ro/SSA (60 KDa), Scl-70, Sm, Sm/RNP, SmD, SmD1, SmD2, SmD3, SP100,Sphingomyelin, SRP54, ssDNA, ssRNA, T1F1 GAMMA, Thyroglobulin, TNFa,Topoisomerase I, TPO, TTG, U1-snRNP-68, U1-snRNP-A, U1-snRNP-BB′,U1-snRNP-C, Vimentin, Vitronectin, β2-glycoprotein I, β2-microglobulin,IgG Control, and anti-Ig, (b) two or more antigens, wherein the two ormore antigens are selected from: A100, Aggrecan, AGTR, Alpha Fodrin(SPTAN1), alpha-actinin, Amyloid, AQP4 recombinant, BPI, Cardolipin,CENP-A, CENP-B, Chondroitin Sulfate C, Chromatin, Collagen I, CollagenII, Collagen III, Collagen IV, Collagen V, Collagen VI, complement C1a,complement C3, complement C3a, complement C3b, complement C4, complementC5, complement C6, complement C7, complement C8, complement C9, CRPantigen, Cytochrome C, Decorin-bovine, DGPS, dsDNA, EBNA1, Elastin,Entaktin EDTA, Factor I, Factor P, FactorB, FactorD, FactorH, FibrinogenIV, Fibrinogen S, Fibronectin, GBM (disso), Gliadin (IgG), GlycatedAlbumin, GP2, qP210, H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4, Hemocyanin, Heparan HSPG,Heparin, Heperan Sulfate, Histone-total, human genomic DNA, IntrinsicFactor, Jo-1, KU (P70/P80), La/SSB, Laminin, LC1, LKM1, M2 Antigen,Matrigel, MDAS, Mi-2, Mitochondrial antigen, MPO, Muscarinic receptor,Myelin basic protein (MBP), Myelin-associated glycoprotein-FC (MAG),Myosin, Nucleolin, Nucleosome antigen, Nup62, PCNA, Peroxiredoxin 1,Phophatidylinositol, PL-12, PL-7, PM/Scl-100, PM/Scl-75, POLB, PR3,Proteoglycan, Prothrombin protein, Ribo phaspho protein P1, Ribo phasphoprotein P2, Ribo phasphoprotein P0, Ro/SSA (52 KDa), Ro/SSA (60 KDa),Scl-70, Sm, Sm/RNP, SmD, SmD1, SmD2, SmD3, SP100, Sphingomyelin, SRP54,ssDNA, ssRNA, T1F1 GAMMA, Thyroglobulin, TNFa, Topoisomerase I, TPO,TTG, U1-snRNP-68, U1-snRNP-A, U1-snRNP-BB′, U1-snRNP-C, Vimentin,Vitronectin, β2-glycoprotein I, β2-microglobulin, IgG Control, anti-Ig,CMV-G, CMV-M, CMV EXT-2, CMV GRADE III, HEPATITIS A, HAV CONCENTRATE,HSV-1, HSV-2, RUBEOLA, RSV, ROTAVIRUS SA-11, RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE III,RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE IV, RUBELLA GRADE IV, RSVP, TOXOPLASMA Antigen, VZV,VZV GRADE II, HUMAN AZUROCDIN, House Dust, Dog Dander, Dog Epithelia,Beef Bos taurus, Shrimp Penacidae, Peanut Arachis hypogaea, Wheat WholeTriticum aestivum, Mite House Dust Blomia tropicalis, Bermuda Cynodondactylon, Cedar Red Juniper rus virginiana, Plantain English Plantagolanceolata, Honey Bee Apis mellifera,3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, Aminoacyl-tRNASynthetase, Asparaginyl-tRNA Synthetase(KS), Glycyl-tRNA Synthetase(EJ),Lysyl-tRNA Synthetase, Phenylalanyl-tRNA Synthetase 2, Human Cytosolic5′-nucleotidase 1A, glutaminyl-tRNA Synthetase, MORC family CW-type zincfinger 3 (MORC3), signal recognition particle 14 kDa, SUMO1 activatingenzyme subunit 1(SAE1), tryptophanyl-tRNA Synthetase(WARS), tyrosyl-tRNASynthetase(YARS), ubiquitin-like modifier activating anzyme 2(UBA2),NY-ESO-1, Prostatic Acid Phosphatase, Prostate Specific MembraneAntigen, MAGEA3, FOLH1, PSA, CA 125, CEA, PSMA/FOLH1/NAALADase 1, MyosinLight Chain, Muscarinic receptor, Albumin Bovine fraction V, AQP4, DNAPolymerase beta Protein, EBV EBNA1, AGTR1(angiotension receptor1),Collagenase A, Collagenase D, Tetanus toxin, or any combination thereof,(c) two or more antigens wherein the two or more antigens comprise:A100, Aggrecan, AGTR, Alpha Fodrin (SPTAN1), alpha-actinin, Amyloid,AQP4 recombinant, BPI, Cardolipin, CENP-A, CENP-B, Chondroitin SulfateC, Chromatin, Collagen I, Collagen II, Collagen III, Collagen IV,Collagen V, Collagen VI, complement C1q, complement C3, complement C3a,complement C3b, complement C4, complement C5, complement C6, complementC7, complement C8, complement C9, CRP antigen, Cytochrome C,Decorin-bovine, DGPS, dsDNA, EBNA1, Elastin, Entaktin EDTA, Factor I,Factor P, FactorB, FactorD, FactorH, Fibrinogen IV, Fibrinogen S,Fibronectin, GBM (disso), Gliadin (IgG), Glycated Albumin, GP2, gP210,H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4, Hemocyanin, Heparan HSPG, Heparin, HeperanSulfate, Histone-total, human genomic DNA, Intrinsic Factor, Jo-1, KU(P70/P80), La/SSB, Laminin, LC1, LKM1, M2 Antigen, Matrigel, MDA5, Mi-2,Mitochondrial antigen, MPO, Muscarinic receptor, Myelin basic protein(MBP), Myelin-associated glycoprotein-FC (MAG), Myosin, Nucleolin,Nucleosome antigen, Nup62, PCNA, Peroxiredoxin 1, Phophatidylinositol,PL-12, PL-7, PM/Scl-100, PM/Scl-75, POLB, PR3, Proteoglycan, Prothrombinprotein, Ribo phaspho protein P1, Ribo phaspho protein P2, Ribophasphoprotein P0, Ro/SSA (52 KDa), Ro/SSA (60 KDa), Scl-70, Sm, Sm/RNP,SmD, SmD1, SmD2, SmD3, SP100, Sphingomyelin, SRP54, ssDNA, ssRNA, T1F1GAMMA, Thyroglobulin, TNFa, Topoisomerase I, TPO, TTG, U1-snRNP-68,U1-snRNP-A, U1-snRNP-BB′, U1-snRNP-C, Vimentin, Vitronectin,82-glycoprotein I, 82-microglobulin, IgG Control, and anti-Ig, and twoor more antigens selected from CMV-G, CMV-M, CMV EXT-2, CMV GRADE III,HEPATITIS A, HAV CONCENTRATE, HSV-1, HSV-2, RUBEOLA, RSV, ROTAVIRUSSA-11, RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE III, RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE IV, RUBELLA GRADEIV, RSVP, TOXOPLASMA Antigen, VZV, VZV GRADE II, HUMAN AZUROCDIN, HouseDust, Dog Dander, Dog Epithelia, Beef Bos taurus, Shrimp Penacidae,Peanut Arachis hypogaea, Wheat Whole Triticum aestivum, Mite House DustBlomia tropicalis, Bermuda Cynodon dactylon, Cedar Red Juniper rusvirginiana, Plantain English Plantago lanceolata, Honey Bee Apismellifera, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase,Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase, Asparaginyl-tRNA Synthetase(KS), Glycyl-tRNASynthetase(EJ), Lysyl-tRNA Synthetase, Phenylalanyl-tRNA Synthetase 2,Human Cytosolic 5′-nucleotidase 1A, glutaminyl-tRNA Synthetase, MORCfamily CW-type zinc finger 3 (MORC3), signal recognition particle 14kDa, SUMO1 activating enzyme subunit 1(SAE1), tryptophanyl-tRNASynthetase(WARS), tyrosyl-tRNA Synthetase(YARS), ubiquitin-like modifieractivating anzyme 2(UBA2), NY-ESO-1, Prostatic Acid Phosphatase,Prostate Specific Membrane Antigen, MAGEA3, FOLH1, PSA, CA 125, CEA,PSMA/FOLH1/NAALADase 1, Myosin Light Chain, Muscarinic receptor, AlbuminBovine fraction V, AQP4, DNA Polymerase beta Protein, EBV EBNA1,AGTR1(angiotension receptor1), Collagenase A, Collagenase D, Tetanustoxin, Ig Control, Anti-Ig, or any combination thereof, or (d) two ormore antigens wherein the two or more antigens comprise: A100, Aggrecan,AGTR, Alpha Fodrin (SPTAN1), alpha-actinin, Amyloid, AQP4 recombinant,BPI, Cardolipin, CENP-A, CENP-B, Chondroitin Sulfate C, Chromatin,Collagen I, Collagen II, Collagen III, Collagen IV, Collagen V, CollagenVI, complement C1q, complement C3, complement C3a, complement C3b,complement C4, complement C5, complement C6, complement C7, complementC8, complement C9, CRP antigen, Cytochrome C, Decorin-bovine, DGPS,dsDNA, EBNA1, Elastin, Entaktin EDTA, Factor I, Factor P, FactorB,FactorD, FactorH, Fibrinogen IV, Fibrinogen S, Fibronectin, GBM (disso),Gliadin (IgG), Glycated Albumin, GP2, gP210, H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4,Hemocyanin, Heparan HSPG, Heparin, Heperan Sulfate, Histone-total, humangenomic DNA, Intrinsic Factor, Jo-1, KU (P70/P80), La/SSB, Laminin, LC1,LKM1, M2 Antigen, Matrigel, MDA5, Mi-2, Mitochondrial antigen, MPO,Muscarinic receptor, Myelin basic protein (MBP), Myelin-associatedglycoprotein-FC (MAG), Myosin, Nucleolin, Nucleosome antigen, Nup62,PCNA, Peroxiredoxin 1, Phophatidylinositol, PL-12, PL-7, PM/Scl-100,PM/Scl-75, POLB, PR3, Proteoglycan, Prothrombin protein, Ribo phasphoprotein P1, Ribo phaspho protein P2, Ribo phasphoprotein P0, Ro/SSA (52KDa), Ro/SSA (60 KDa), Scl-70, Sm, Sm/RNP, SmD, SmD1, SmD2, SmD3, SP100,Sphingomyelin, SRP54, ssDNA, ssRNA, T1F1 GAMMA, Thyroglobulin, TNFa,Topoisomerase I, TPO, TTG, U1-snRNP-68, U1-snRNP-A, U1-snRNP-BB′,U1-snRNP-C, Vimentin, Vitronectin, 82-glycoprotein I, 82-microglobulin,IgG Control, and anti-Ig, CMV-G, CMV-M, CMV EXT-2, CMV GRADE III,HEPATITIS A, HAV CONCENTRATE, HSV-1, HSV-2, RUBEOLA, RSV, ROTAVIRUSSA-11, RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE III, RUBELLA VIRUS GRADE IV, RUBELLA GRADEIV, RSVP, TOXOPLASMA Antigen, VZV, VZV GRADE II, HUMAN AZUROCDIN, HouseDust, Dog Dander, Dog Epithelia, Beef Bos taurus, Shrimp Penacidae,Peanut Arachis hypogaea, Wheat Whole Triticum aestivum, Mite House DustBlomia tropicalis, Bermuda Cynodon dactylon, Cedar Red Juniper rusvirginiana, Plantain English Plantago lanceolata, Honey Bee Apismellifera, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase,Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase, Asparaginyl-tRNA Synthetase(KS), Glycyl-tRNASynthetase(EJ), Lysyl-tRNA Synthetase, Phenylalanyl-tRNA Synthetase 2,Human Cytosolic 5′-nucleotidase 1A, glutaminyl-tRNA Synthetase, MORCfamily CW-type zinc finger 3 (MORC3), signal recognition particle 14kDa, SUMO1 activating enzyme subunit 1(SAE1), tryptophanyl-tRNASynthetase(WARS), tyrosyl-tRNA Synthetase(YARS), ubiquitin-like modifieractivating anzyme 2(UBA2), NY-ESO-1, Prostatic Acid Phosphatase,Prostate Specific Membrane Antigen, MAGEA3, FOLH1, PSA, CA 125, CEA,PSMA/FOLH1/NAALADase 1, Myosin Light Chain, Muscarinic receptor, AlbuminBovine fraction V, AQP4, DNA Polymerase beta Protein, EBV EBNA1,AGTR1(angiotension receptor1), Collagenase A, Collagenase D, and Tetanustoxin.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein assessing comprises ELISA, RIA,Western blot, fluorescence-based antibody screening protein microarray,bead array, cartridges, lateral flow, or line-probe assays.
 5. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising (d) assessing therapeutictoxicity, wherein the assessing therapeutic toxicity comprises: (i)providing an antibody-containing sample from said subject wherein thesample is obtained at a time point after step (c); (ii) assessing two ormore autoantibody levels in said sample, wherein the two or moreautoantibody levels comprise entaktin autoantibody level and fibrinogenautoantibody level, thereby permitting assessment of therapeutictoxicity.
 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising performing acontrol reaction with known autoantibody standards.
 7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said immunotherapy comprises administration of animmune checkpoint inhibitor, a chimeric antigen receptor, or animmunotoxin.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said immunotherapycomprises administration of an anti-CTLA4 antibody, an anti-PD1antibody, or an anti-PD1 ligand.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein saidimmunotherapy comprises a combination of multiple immunotherapeuticagents or a combination of an immunotherapeutic agent and anon-immunotherapeutic agent.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein saidsubject has previously been diagnosed with an autoimmune disease. 11.The method of claim 1, wherein said subject has not previously beendiagnosed with an autoimmune disease.
 12. The method of claim 1, whereinsaid subject has lung cancer, melanoma, head & neck cancer, kidneycancer, or lymphoma, or bladder cancer.
 13. The method of claim 1,further comprising assessing a rate of increase or decrease inautoantibody level.
 14. The method of claim 1, further comprisingclassifying immunotherapy toxicity based on organ or organ system insaid subject.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein said organ or organsystem is skin, lung, central/peripheral nervous system, pituitarygland, eye, heart, gastrointestinal tract, thyroid, adrenal gland,liver, pancreas, or kidney.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein saidsubject is further characterized as receiving a molecular targetedtherapy, a chemotherapy, a chemoembolization, a radiotherapy, aradiofrequency ablation, a hormone therapy, a bland embolization, asurgery, or a second distinct immunotherapy.
 17. The method of claim 1,wherein the toxicity mitigating therapy is a corticosteroids a TNFinhibitor, or hormone replacement.